Netflix for Regency Ladies: Circulating Libraries in Jane Austen's Era

Circulating libraries were private businesses that loaned books to subscribing members. They were popularised in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when books were expensive luxury items and public libraries were not yet in existence. Instead, subscriptions to circulating libraries could be obtained at various price tiers, allowing patrons across social classes different levels of access to a wide range of books at a fraction of the price of purchase. Higher tiers of subscription were given access to newer books and allowed for more books to be borrowed at a time. They are particularly associated with the growth of a female readership in the period. Some circulating libraries were operated by book publishers themselves, such as William Lane’s Minerva Press. Others were set up as separate commercial enterprises in resort centers like Bath, Brighton or Margate, or in smaller provincial towns. Circulating libraries sometimes combined the rental of books with the sale of other tempting merchandise, such as stationery, cosmetics, fashion accessories, art supplies and patent medicines. Although the industrialization of book printing, resulting in lower prices, and the rise of public libraries spelled an end to these enterprises, their impact on the publishing industry and reading culture still resonates today.

The rise in popularity of circulating libraries in England in the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries had a great effect on the form of the novel itself. The three-volume form, where a single novel was divided into three separately published volumes, became popular for ease of lending—three people could be reading the same novel at once. This division into three changed how authors wrote their stories; for example, in Jane Austen’s work, rather than simply building up to a large climax near the end of the novel, she provided her readers with small narrative climaxes at the conclusion of each volume, as well as some uncertainty about the future of her heroines to encourage circulating library patrons to pick up the next volume. Short borrowing times led to increased consumption and encouraged publishers to deliver entertaining books that could be completed in one reading. In this environment, novelistic subgenres like gothic novels, historical novels, and sentimental novels flourished.

Many circulating libraries were buying as many novels as they could to appease their customers, and because of the sheer volume of books the libraries owned, they made catalogues that listed all books available for borrowing. Many of the books listed were titled in a way that let the reader know exactly what the book would be about, be it a character’s name to signal who the hero or heroine would be, or a seemingly dark location to signify the genre of the gothic novel. Novels were in high demand, so many people became authors and published their own novels, but would use pen names or remain anonymous. Because of this, the catalogues featuring the novels on hand would list the titles of the novels, but not the authors’ names. The works would be listed by genre, and then in alphabetical order by title and would occasionally have an author’s name, or simply ‘a lady’ as the author attached to the listing. None of Jane Austen’s novels appeared with her name on the title page during her lifetime, but were simply identified as being ‘By a Lady’. Circulating library catalogues list the titles of the novels, but generally not the authors’ names.

Circulating libraries were primarily business ventures. They charged patrons a fee, usually yearly, to borrow books. Patrons were able to borrow a limited number of books for a set length of time, and were subject to fines if items were lost, damaged, or returned late. Fees for damaged or late books were often equivalent to the purchase cost of the book itself.

Patrons read quickly to keep up with book-lending time limits, which caused novels to change in construction in order to fit with the demand. Presently, with the ease of access and amount of content, all media consumption - particularly popular media, such as social media - is pressed to be shorter and shorter to catch and keep people's attentions. A second and opposite trend appeared with the boom of long-form content, such as Twitch streams, YouTube analysis, short essay videos, and podcasts.

Over the decades, circulating libraries lost popularity. By the start of the 20th century, the ways people consumed books had changed due to reduced book prices. With the introduction of paperback copies especially, buying books was affordable and accessible to all classes. With the Public Libraries Act of 1850, 'free' local libraries funded through allocated tax dollars became increasingly commonplace. While circulating libraries have dissipated, they live on in modern equivalents, and other characteristics of this era such as reading practices, authorship, and additional services have survived as well.

eBooks can be purchased, rented, or loaned, depending on the platform used. Those with subscription fees tend to have more popular media and exclusive content available, as well as premium options based on the level of the subscription. Project Gutenberg is a free eBook platform with the aim of making knowledge available for all–a model most similar to public libraries. 

Audio books can be purchased, rented, or loaned, depending on the platform used. Those with subscription fees tend to have more popular media and exclusive content available, as well as premium options based on the level of the subscription. Audible is a popular audio book app, with two subscription options: Audible Plus ($7.95) and Audible Premium Plus ($14.95). The former allows unlimited streaming from a limited catalog (older, less popular books), while the latter adds on the benefit of buying one audiobook per month (newer, more popular books) at a fixed fee. Other books must be purchased at retail price if the limit should be exceeded.

There are websites where aspiring writers and hobbyists can publish their stories at their discretion, usually one chapter per week, to be read by users. Certain platforms provide unlimited access, while others may charge a fee in the form of a subscription, an early-access fee, or an exclusive content purchase. Wattpad is a free service in which writing is unregulated as anyone can publish anything. In addition to reading and commenting on chapters, users also have a social network for communal interaction.

Movies and shows can be watched via streaming services for a monthly fee. Most streaming platforms also offer exclusive content native to their service to attract viewers and differentiate themselves from other services. They are also available for different devices, but only for a certain number—if the limit is reached, a fee must be paid. Netflix is a popular subscription streaming service, with different subscription tiers, the most expensive of which removes ads, increases the number of streaming devices allowed, and improves video quality. It also promotes binge culture, as many shows are released with all episodes available to watch, and the episodes auto-play one after the other.

Video publishing websites allow aspiring content creators to publish their original videos, shows, podcasts, visual essays, and more to their own channel for viewers to watch and subscribe to. Most platforms have free access, as anyone can post anything, and they provide original content for free with ad-reels interspersed throughout the videos. Some platforms have payment options for exclusive content or to have ads removed. Creators themselves are paid by the platform and by ad companies if their content is popular enough. Otherwise, viewers may opt to donate to their favourite creators, or subscribe for a fee for exclusive perks.

Movies and shows can be watched via streaming services for a monthly fee. Most streaming platforms also offer exclusive content native to their service to attract viewers and differentiate themselves from other services. They are also available for different devices, but only for a certain number—if the limit is reached, a fee must be paid. Netflix is a popular subscription streaming service, with different subscription tiers, the most expensive of which removes ads, increases the number of streaming devices allowed, and improves video quality. It also promotes binge culture, as many shows are released with all episodes available to watch, and the episodes auto-play one after the other.

Video publishing websites allow aspiring content creators to publish their original videos, shows, podcasts, visual essays, and more to their own channel for viewers to watch and subscribe to. Most platforms have free access, as anyone can post anything, and they provide original content for free with ad-reels interspersed throughout the videos. Some platforms have payment options for exclusive content or to have ads removed. Creators themselves are paid by the platform and by ad companies if their content is popular enough. Otherwise, viewers may opt to donate to their favourite creators, or subscribe for a fee for exclusive perks.

Reading people, in terms of social cues and situations, was a necessary skill to refine in society. Today, reading people is still a necessary skill, though arguably its importance has diminished. Besides that, 'reading people' can also mean pointing out observations about someone with the intention of insulting them, usually in a playful way, as seen in popular media such as  RuPaul's Drag Race.

Reading communally was commonplace in Regency society; it was a social activity, done with family and friends. However, reading alone was frowned upon and warned against in the conduct literature of the time. Today, reading alone is the standard practice, and reading together is reserved for those who are learning to read, such as with parents reading to their children, and teachers reading to their classes. In readers' circles, reading aloud is also for authors who present their work.

The Regency Era saw little importance placed on the author. Authors were published anonymously, via pseudonyms (such as "a Lady"), or as the author of their previous work. In modern times, published authors will have their names printed on the book cover, and on the interior of the back cover will also publish biographical information and even a portrait of themselves. Sometimes pseudonyms are still used, but they are less common in modern times. However, online pseudonyms (handles) are very common for those who publish on amateur sites. Those who publish online can choose to share personal information or remain completely anonymous.

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Jacobs, Edward.  “Anonymous Signatures: Circulating Libraries, Conventionality, and the Production of Gothic Romances.”  ELH 62.3 (1995): 603-629.  Jstor.

Manley, K. A. "Scottish Circulating And Subscription Libraries As Community Libraries." Library History, vol. 19, 2003, pp.185-194.

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St. Clair, William. The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period.  Cambridge University Press, 2004.

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Stevens, Anne. “Circulating Libraries as Institutional Creators of Genres”. Institutions of Literature 1700-1900. Ed J. Mee and M. Sangster. Cambridge University Press, 2022.